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    Problem Solving & Data AnalysisHard

    Evaluating statistical claims: Observational studies and experiments

    Distinguish between observational studies and experiments, and determine when causation can be concluded.

    Sample SAT Problem

    Researchers find that students who eat breakfast score higher on tests. Can we conclude breakfast causes higher scores?

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    Step-by-Step Solution

    No — this is observational. Correlation does not imply causation without a controlled experiment.

    Key Tips from Pamela

    • Only a randomized controlled experiment can establish causation.
    • Observational studies show association, not cause-and-effect.
    • Confounding variables are factors that could explain the relationship other than the variable being studied.

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